Research

The research
behind B-Trainer

Peer-reviewed studies and reviews on timing, rhythm, attention and movement.

Timing and attention

Timing differences in ADHD

Clinical Psychology Review · 2013
ADHD and reaction-time variability — a meta-analysis of 319 studies
Kofler et al. (2013)
319 studies combined
Children and adolescents with ADHD: more variable reaction times than peers
Same direction in adults
Read the paper ↗
Neuropsychologia · 2013
Timing in ADHD — a review of neurocognitive and imaging studies
Noreika, Falter & Rubia (2013)
Differences in motor timing, time perception and time prediction
Tapping in time to sounds (sensorimotor synchronization) was the most consistent finding
Read the paper ↗
Scientific Reports · 2017
ADHD and the beat — rhythm timing in children and adults
Puyjarinet et al. (2017)
Difficulty moving in time and noticing off-beat events
The authors proposed rhythm-based approaches as a direction for future research
Read the paper ↗
NeuroImage · 2010
The timing brain — a meta-analysis of 41 imaging studies
Wiener et al. (2010)
Under one second: more basal ganglia and cerebellum
Over one second: more supplementary motor and prefrontal areas
Read the paper ↗
Experimental Brain Research · 2020
Beat-matching practice and sustained attention — a randomized study
Karampela, Madison & Holm (2020)
Beat-matching practice with feedback on every tap, 30 min × 5 days
Better sustained-attention test (CPT-II) performance in the practice group
Read the paper ↗
Rhythm training

Studies that practiced the beat

Behavior Research Methods · 2025
Children with ADHD and a finger-tapping rhythm game — randomized pilot
Jamey, Laflamme et al. (2025)
27 children aged 7–13, 300 min of tablet game over 2 weeks
Better rhythmic abilities than a comparison game
Executive functioning also improved — preliminary
Read the paper ↗
Annals of the NY Academy of Sciences · 2026
Autistic children and a rhythm game — randomized proof-of-concept
Jamey, Laflamme, Dalla Bella et al. (2026)
26 autistic children aged 7–13, 2 weeks, randomized
Rhythmic skills improved more than with a comparison game
Gains in executive-function accuracy — preliminary
Read the paper ↗
Cognition · 2024
Music training and children’s inhibitory control — 22-study meta-analysis
Jamey et al. (2024)
22 longitudinal studies, 1,734 children (8 randomized)
Better inhibitory control after music training
Medium to large effects in randomized trials only
Read the paper ↗
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · 2023
Rhythm-based assessment and training for children with ADHD — study design
Shin et al. (2023)
Rhythm-based assessment and training focusing on timing difficulties in ADHD
Published study protocol: questionnaires, cognitive tests and EEG before and after 4 weeks
Read the paper ↗
npj Science of Learning · 2026
Beat-matching and inhibitory control at ages 4–5
Kim et al. (2026)
140 children aged 4–5
Matching a slow beat (50 bpm) alone may relate to inhibitory control and executive function
Read the paper ↗
Rhythm and movement

Rhythm in rehabilitation

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · 2017
Music and rhythm after brain injury — Cochrane review
Magee et al. (2017)
29 trials, 775 people
Walking to a beat after stroke: about 11 m/min faster
Stride on the affected side about 0.12 m longer
Read the paper ↗
Scientific Reports · 2019
Rhythmic cueing for walking after stroke — 38-study meta-analysis
Ghai & Ghai (2019)
38 studies, 968 people
Walking speed (g = 0.73) and stride length (g = 0.58) improved
Read the paper ↗
Scientific Reports · 2018
Parkinson’s gait and rhythmic cueing — 50-study meta-analysis
Ghai et al. (2018)
50 studies, 1,892 people
Positive effects on walking speed and stride length when walking to rhythmic sound cues
Read the paper ↗
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · 2022
Rhythm and music in motor rehabilitation — evidence review
Braun Janzen, Thaut et al. (2022)
Musical rhythm serves as a reference for the timing and pace of movement
Broad review of rhythm interventions for motor function after brain injury and degeneration
Read the paper ↗
Autism and rhythm

Rhythm and autism

J Autism Dev Disord · 2018
Autism and millisecond timing — synchronized finger tapping
Morimoto et al. (2018)
Compared with a synchronized finger-tapping task
More variable millisecond timing in the autism group
This instability went together with motor performance
Read the paper ↗
Nature Communications · 2021
Autism and keeping a beat — how fast errors are corrected
Vishne et al. (2021)
Only the autism group had difficulty synchronizing to the beat
Slower correction of timing errors on the next beat
Read the paper ↗
Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · 2024
Autism, rhythm and music — supporting sensorimotor regulation
LaGasse, Yoo & Hardy (2024)
Music processing in many autistic people is similar to peers
How rhythm and music relate to sensorimotor regulation and motor, social and communication skills
Read the paper ↗
B-Trainer was built on the same principle as these studies — predicting the beat and getting feedback on every tap — and was developed based on related papers and research.
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